The effect of the Public Order Act of 1994, (Act 491) on Democracy in Ghana
Main Article Content
Abstract
Background: The thirty-year-old Public Order Act of Ghana of 1994 (Act 491), is seen as archaic legislation over the people’s civil libertarian rights to assemble in protest against inimical and corrupt government actions. It has become the bane of democratic development in Ghana, preventing the citizens right to conduct non-violent civil disobedience acts, and seen as anti-establishment act. Methods: This is an exploratory as well as retrospective review of government security apparatchik’s interpersonal relationship with the Ghanaian public who engage(d) in non-violent demonstrations and protests since the promulgation of the act. Results: The assessment revealed that, for the average Ghanaian citizen, his or her only means of getting the attention of government is through public demonstration or protest. The Parliamentarians for their constituencies are disconnected from them giving them no avenue for the redress of grievances. It also found that, the international development partners operating in Ghana are perceived to be siphoning the life-blood out of the people of Ghana, sort of domestic economic hit men, who promote Ghana as a democracy despite the realities on the ground, due to the effect of their role on increasing income inequalities among the populations. Conclusion: Despite the persistent denial of the public’s right to assemble and protest against government conduct: corruption, stealing, extravagant living and spending, denial of meritocratic job placement, and the harm caused to their freedoms, the international development partners and nations continue to issue endorsements to the government as running a democratic system, despite evidence-based corruption, indebtedness to both international and domestic creditors and poor socio-economic outcomes for the people of Ghana due poor leadership and management of the economy.
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
References
- Abbink, K. (2000). Fair Salaries and the Moral Costs of Corruption. Bonn Econ Discussion Papers, No. 1/2000.
- Abbink, K. (2002). An Experimental Bribery Game. Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization, 18(2), 428–454. https://doi.org/10.1093/jleo/18.2.428
- Agbodeka, F. (1992). An Economic History of Ghana: From the Earliest Times. Accra: Ghana Universities Press.
- Agbodohu, W. (2014). Corruption in Ghana: Causes, Consequences and Cures. International Journal of Economics, Finance and Management Sciences, 2(1), 92. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijefm.20140201.20
- Aryeetey, E. (1996). Structural Adjustment and Aid in Ghana. Friedrich Ebert Foundation, Ghana Office.
- Aryeetey, E., & Kanbur, S. M. R. (2007). The Economy of Ghana: Analytical Perspectives on Stability, Growth & Poverty. Oxford: James Currey.
- African News. (2024). Anti-corruption protests erupt in Uganda’s capital, inspired by Kenya. Redaction African News. https://www.africanness. com
- Ansah-Akrofi, G. (2022). Ghana’s False prophets face arrest for spooking public, Sunday Times, Times Media Ltd, 1 London Bridge Street, SE1 9GF. https://www.thetimes.com
- Akufo-Addo. (2022). Personal Communications: - Russian mercenaries on Ghana’s Northern Border. Secretary Antony J. Blinken and Ghanaian President Nana Akufo-Addo Before their Meeting remarks, Walter E. Washington Convention Center, DC. https://www.state.gov
- Banerjee, A. V., & Duflo, E. (2008). What is Middle Class about the Middle Classes around the World? Journal of Economic Perspectives, 22(2), 3–28. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.22.2.3
- Bhalla, S. (2009). The Middle Class Kingdoms of India and China. Washington DC: Peterson Institute for International Economics.
- Birdsall, N., Graham, C. N., & Pettinato, S. (2001). Stuck in Tunnel: Is Globalization Muddling the Middle? SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.277162
- Bluwey, G. K. (1998). State Organizations in the Transition to Constitutional Democracy. In K. A. Ninsin (Ed.), Ghana: Transition to Democracy (pp. 167-185). Accra: Freedom Publications.
- Bradt, D. A. (2009). Evidence-Based Decision-Making in Humanitarian Assistance. Humanitarian Practice Network, Overseas Development Institute, 67, 1-24.
- Boahen, A. (1966). A Short History of Ghana. London: Heinemann Press.
- Barnett, M. N., & Finnemore, M. (1999). The Politics, Power, and Pathologies of International Organizations. International Organization, 53(4), 699–732. https://doi.org/10.1162/002081899551048
- Barimah-Barnie, Y. (2024). Ghana Water Suffers high turbidity levels due to illegal mining. https://www.myjoyonline.com
- Bauer, M. E., Cruz, C., & Graham, B. A. T. (2011). Democracies only: When do IMF agreements serve as a seal of approval? The Review of International Organizations, 7(1), 33–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11558-011-9122-9
- Brownstein, M., Kelly, D., & Madva, A. (2021). Individualism, Structuralism, and Climate Change. Environmental Communication, 16(2), 269–288. https://doi.org/10.1080/17524032.2021.1982745
- Burkitt, I. (2014). Emotions and Social Relations. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473915060
- Bundervoet, J. (2012). World Bank Blog. https://www.worldbank.org
- Carney, N. (2016). All Lives Matter, but so Does Race. Humanity & Society, 40(2), 180–199. https://doi.org/10.1177/0160597616643868
- Chêne, M. (2009). Low Salaries, the Culture of Per Diems and Corruption. U4 Expert Answer. http://www.u4.no/helpdesk/helpdesk/query.cfm?id=220
- Darko, S. (2022). Ghana’s False prophets face arrest for spooking public, Sunday Times, Times Media Ltd, 1 London Bridge Street, SE1 9GF. https://www.thetimes.com
- Datt, G., & Ravallion, M. (1998). Why Have Some Indian States Done Better than Others at Reducing Rural Poverty? Economica, 65(257), 17–38. Portico. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0335.00112
- Dreher, A. (2006). IMF and economic growth: The effects of programs, loans, and compliance with conditionality. World Development, 34(5), 769–788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2005.11.002
- Dreher, A., Sturm, J.-E., & Vreeland, J. R. (2009). Global horse trading: IMF loans for votes in the United Nations Security Council. European Economic Review, 53(7), 742–757. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2009.03.002
- Easterly, W. (2001). Journal of Economic Growth, 6(4), 317–335. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1012786330095
- Easterly, W. (2007). Inequality does cause underdevelopment: Insights from a new instrument. Journal of Development Economics, 84(2), 755–776. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2006.11.002
- Escobar, A. (2017). Complexity theory and the place of the now. Cultural Dynamics, 29(4), 333–339. https://doi.org/10.1177/0921374017740460
- Ewusi, K. (1987). Structural Adjustment and Stabilization Policies in Developing Countries: A Case study of Ghana’s Experience in 1983-1986. Tema: GPC.
- Fanon, F. (1961). The Pitfalls of National Consciousness, Chapter 3. The Wretched of the Earth. https://www.marxists.org
- Foltz, J. D., & Opoku-Agyemang, K. A. (2015). Do Higher Salaries Lower Petty Corruption? A Policy Experiment on West Africa’s Highways? Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Agricultural and Applied Economics.
- Frimpong-Ansah, J. H. (1991). The Vampire State in Africa: The Political Economy of Decline in Ghana. Africa World Press.
- Fayemi, A. (2009). Towards an African Theory of Democracy. Thought and Practice: A Journal of the Philosophical Association of Kenya, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.4314/tp.v1i1.46309
- Farand, C. (2017). Ghana’s President appoints 110 Ministers. Independent News. https://www.independent.co.uk
- Financial Action Task Force. https://www.fatf-gafi.org
- Fleck, R. K., & Hanseen, F. A. (2002). The Origins of Democracy: A Model with Application to Ancient Greece. Bozeman, MT: Department of Agricultural Economics and Economics, Montana State University.
- Ganz, M. (2024). People, Power, Change. Oxford University PressNew York. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197569009.001.0001
- Ghana Controller’s and Accountant General Report (2013). http://www.ghana.gov.gh
- Ghana Public Accounts Committee Report (2014). http://www.ghana.gov.gh
- Green, Leslie, 2008, The Contemporary Law of Armed Conflict (3rd ed), Manchester: Manchester University Press.
- Haslanger, S. (2017). Racism, Ideology, and Social Movements. Res Philosophica, 94(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.11612/resphil.1547
- Heydari Fard, S. (2022). Strategic injustice, dynamic network formation, and social movements. Synthese, 200(5). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-022-03576-3
- Hooker, J. (2016). Black Lives Matter and the Paradoxes of U.S. Black Politics. Political Theory, 44(4), 448–469. https://doi.org/10.1177/0090591716640314
- Thoreau, H. D. (1849). Civil Disobedience, Libertas Institute, Salt Lake City, Utah, In reprint, 2014, Salt Lake City, Utah.
- Hills, A. (1996). Towards a Critique of Policing and National Development in Africa. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 34(2), 271–291. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022278x00055336
- Huysmans, J. (2004). Minding Exceptions: The Politics of Insecurity and Liberal Democracy. Contemporary Political Theory, 3(3), 321–341. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.cpt.9300137
- Perkins, J. (2006). Confessions of an Economic Hit Man, Penguin Group, New York.
- Norman, I. D. (2022). Statism and the Growth of Authoritarianism in Sub-Saharan Africa. European Journal of Law and Political Science, 1(2), 15–27. https://doi.org/10.24018/ejpolitics.2022.1.2.14
- Norman, I. D., Sepenu, E. A. & Kpeglo, D. E. (2024). Subjective Happiness Index, Ghana. Institute for Security, Disaster and Emergency Studies, https//www.isdesghana.org
- Igbogo, E. J. (2015). National Security and National Development: A critique. International Journal of Arts and Humanities, 4(2), 14. https://doi.org/10.4314/ijah.v4i2.l
- IMF Press Briefing on Ghana. (2023). Transcript of IMF Press Briefing on Ghana: Executive Board Approves US$3 Billion Extended Credit Facility For Ghana. https://www.imf.org
- Kamau, N. (2014). Perceptions of Feminism and its effect on voter conscientiousness – A Kenyan Women’s Perceptive. Heinrich Boel Stiftung Foundation. Nairobi, Kenya.
- Kakwani, N. (1980). On a Class of Poverty Measures. Econometrica, 48(2), 437. https://doi.org/10.2307/1911106
- Kornhauser, W. (1959). The Politics of Mass Society, Free Press, New York.
- Kharas, H., & Gertz, G. (2010). The new global middle class: a cross-over from West to East (1-14). Wolfensohn Center for Development at Brookings.
- Killick, T. (2010). Development Economics in Action. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203852019
- Lang, V. (2020). The economics of the democratic deficit: The effect of IMF programs on inequality. The Review of International Organizations, 16(3), 599–623. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11558-020-09405-x
- Le, V.-H., de Haan, J., & Dietzenbacher, E. (2013). Do Higher Government Wages Reduce Corruption? Evidence Based on a Novel Dataset. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2274648
- Lindner, S. (2013). Salary Top-Ups and Their Impact on Corruption. Bergen, Norway: U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre.
- Lynch, M. (2009). Capgemini (2006): World Wealth Report 2006. World Wealth Report 2009, New York: Merrill Lynch.
- Lukose, R. (2018). Decolonizing Feminism in the MeToo Era. The Cambridge Journal of Anthropology, 36(2), 34–52. https://doi.org/10.3167/cja.2018.360205
- Mahajan, V. (2009). Africa Rising: How 900 Million African Consumers Offer More than You Think. New York: Pearson Education, Inc. NY, NY
- Mtonya, B., & Chizimbi, S. (2006). System Wide Effects of the Global Fund in Malawi: Final Report. Bethesda, MD: The Partners for Health Reform plus Project, Abt Associates Inc.
- Media Foundation for West Africa. (2021). Kiling of protesters in Ejura: new low in Ghana’s descent into lawlessness. Https://www.mfwa.org
- Morris, A. D. (1999). A RETROSPECTIVE ON THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT: Political and Intellectual Landmarks. Annual Review of Sociology, 25(1), 517–539. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.25.1.517
- Nelson, S. C., & Wallace, G. P. R. (2016). Are IMF lending programs good or bad for democracy? The Review of International Organizations, 12(4), 523–558. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11558-016-9250-3
- Norman, I. (2017). Democracy and Choice: Do These Mean Anything to the Average Ghanaian? Advances in Applied Sociology, 07(03), 115–135. https://doi.org/10.4236/aasoci.2017.73007
- Ncube, M., Lufumba, C. L., & Steve, K. (2011). The Middle of the Pyramid: Dynamics of the Middle Class in Africa. Market Brief, 20 April 2011, African Development Bank.
- Nelson, S. C. & Wallace, G. P. R. (2016). IMF and Democracy. https://faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu
- Norman, I. D., & Aviisah, M. A. (2015). Does Corruption Manifest Post Traumatic Stress Disorder? Donnish Journal of Neuroscience and Behavioral Health, 1, 12-20. http://www.donnishjournals.org/djnbh
- Norman, I., Awiah, B. M., Aikins, M. K., & Binka, F. N. (2014). The Review of Ghana’s Legislative Preparedness to Critical National Risks: Terrorism and Money Laundering. Issues in Business Management and Economics, 2, 201-209. http://journalissues.org
- Norman, I. (2018). The Right to Keep and Bear Arms, Ghana. Advances in Applied Sociology, 08(10), 668–688. https://doi.org/10.4236/aasoci.2018.810040
- Norman, I. D. (2022). The Axis of Hate: Identitarianism, Afroxenophobia and Vigilantism. European Journal of Development Studies, 2(5), 38–51. https://doi.org/10.24018/ejdevelop.2022.2.5.168
- Nkrumah, K. (1966). Neocolonialism, the Last Stages of Imperialism. International Publishers Co. Inc., USA
- Quijano, A. (2000). Coloniality of Power and Eurocentrism in Latin America. International Sociology, 15(2), 215–232. https://doi.org/10.1177/0268580900015002005
- Ramachandran, V., Gelb, A., & Shah, M. K. (2009). Africa’s Private Sector: What’s Wrong with the Business Environment and What to Do about It. Center for Global Development.
- Ravallion, M., & Huppi, M. (1991). Measuring Changes in Poverty: A Methodological Case Study of Indonesia during an Adjustment Period. The World Bank Economic Review, 5(1), 57–82. https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/5.1.57
- Ravallion, M., Chen, S., & Sangraula, P. (2008). Dollar A Day Revisited. In Policy Research Working Papers. The World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-4620
- Raaflaub, K. A., Ober, J., & Wallace, R. (2007). Origins of Democracy in Ancient Greece. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520932173
- Ugaz (2015). Corruption in Africa: 75 Million People Pay Bribes. Transparency International, Bonn, Germany
- Haque, N. U., & Sahay, R. (1996). Do Government Wage Cuts Close Budget Deficits? Costs of Corruption. Staff Papers - International Monetary Fund, 43(4), 754. https://doi.org/10.2307/3867368
- UN Open Working Group of the General Assembly on Sustainable Development Goals Is Issued as Document A/68/970 (2015). http://undocs.org/A/68/970
- Van Rijckeghem, C., & Weder, B. (2001). Bureaucratic corruption and the rate of temptation: do wages in the civil service affect corruption, and by how much? Journal of Development Economics, 65(2), 307–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0304-3878(01)00139-0
- Villaseñor, JoséA., & Arnold, B. C. (1989). Elliptical Lorenz curves. Journal of Econometrics, 40(2), 327–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4076(89)90089-4
- Visagie, J. (2013). Race, Gender and Growth of the Affluent Middle Class in Post-Apartheid South Africa. In Biennial Conference of the Economic Society of South Africa, Bloemfontein: University of the Free State. https://www.econrsa.org
- Visagie, J., & Posel, D. (2013). A reconsideration of what and who is middle class in South Africa. Development Southern Africa, 30(2), 149–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835x.2013.797224
- Wallace, R. W. (2007). Revolutions and a New Order in Solonian Athens and Archaic Greece. Origins of Democracy in Ancient Greece, 49–82. https://doi.org/10.1525/california/9780520245624.003.0003
- Wilson, D., & Dragusanu, R. (2008). The Expanding Middle Class: The Exploding World Middle Class and Falling Global Inequality. Goldman Sachs Economic Research Global Economics Papers Issue 170, New York: Goldman Sachs.
- WILLIAMS, M. C. (1998). Modernity, identity and security: a comment on the ‘Copenhagen controversy.’ Review of International Studies, 24(3), 435–439. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0260210598004355